Comparative phenotypic and genotypic analysis of community-acquired and hospital-acquired intra-abdominal infections among liver transplanted patients.

AIM: During liver transplantation, both hospital-acquired (HA) and community-acquired (CA) intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) are involved causing life-threatening diseases. Therefore, comparative studies of aerobic and facultative anaerobic HA-IAIs and CA-IAIs after liver transplantation surgery are necessary. METHODS AND RESULTS: The species of detected isolates (310) from intra-abdominal fluid were identified and classified into hospital-acquired intra-abdominal infections (HA-IAIs) and community-acquired intra-abdominal infections (CA-IAIs). Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii were the most commonly detected species. The resistant phenotypes were commonly detected among the HA-IAIs; however, the virulent phenotypes were the predominant strains of CA-IAIs. Regrettably, the resistance profiles were shocking, indicating the inefficacy of monotherapy in treating these isolates. Therefore, we confirmed the use of empirical combination therapies of amikacin and meropenem for treating all IAIs (FICI ≤ 0.5). Unfortunately, the high diversity and low clonality of all identified HA and CA-IAIs were announced with D-value in the range of 0.992-1. CONCLUSION: This diversity proves that there are infinite numbers of infection sources inside and outside healthcare centers.

Phenotypic, molecular detection, and Antibiotic Resistance Profile (MDR and XDR) of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from Farmed Tilapia zillii and Mugil cephalus.

In the present study, Aeromonas hydrophila was isolated from Tilapia zillii and Mugil cephalus samples collected during different seasons from various Suez Canal areas in Egypt. The prevalence of A. hydrophila, virulence genes, and antibiotic resistance profile of the isolates to the commonly used antibiotics in aquaculture were investigated to identify multiple drug resistance (MDR) and extensive drug-resistant (XDR) strains. In addition, a pathogenicity test was conducted using A. hydrophila, which was isolated and selected based on the prevalence of virulence and resistance genes, and morbidity of natural infected fish. The results revealed that A. hydrophila was isolated from 38 of the 120 collected fish samples (31.6%) and confirmed phenotypically and biochemically. Several virulence genes were detected in retrieved A. hydrophila isolates, including aerolysin aerA (57.9%), ser (28.9%), alt (26.3%), ast (13.1%), act (7.9%), hlyA (7.9%), and nuc (18.4%). Detection of antibiotic-resistant genes revealed that all isolates were positive for blapse1 (100%), blaSHV (42.1%), tetA (60.5%), and sul1 (42.1%). 63.1% of recovered isolates were considered MDR, while 28.9% of recovered isolates were considered XDR. Some isolates harbor both virulence and MDR genes; the highest percentage carried 11, followed by isolates harboring 9 virulence and resistance genes. It could be concluded that the high prevalence of A. hydrophila in aquaculture species and their diverse antibiotic resistance and virulence genes suggest the high risk of Aeromonas infection and could have important implications for aquaculture and public health.

Meat and meat products as potential sources of emerging MDR Bacillus cereus: groEL gene sequencing, toxigenic and antimicrobial resistance.

BACKGROUND: Bacillus cereus is implicated in severe foodborne infection in humans. This study intended to assess the occurrence, groEL gene sequencing, biofilm production, and resistance profiles of emerged multidrug resistant (MDR) B. cereus in meat and meat product samples. Moreover, this work highlights the virulence and toxigenic genes (hblABCD complex, nheABC complex, cytK, ces, and pc-plc) and antimicrobial resistance genes (bla1, tetA, bla2, tetB, and ermA). METHODS: Consequently, 200 samples (sausage, minced meat, luncheon, beef meat, and liver; n = 40 for each) were indiscriminately collected from commercial supermarkets in Port Said Province, Egypt, from March to May 2021. Subsequently, food samples were bacteriologically examined. The obtained isolates were tested for groEL gene sequence analysis, antibiotic susceptibility, biofilm production, and PCR screening of toxigenic and resistance genes. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of B. cereus among the inspected food samples was 21%, where the highest predominance was detected in minced meat (42.5%), followed by beef meat (30%). The phylogenetic analysis of the groEL gene exposed that the examined B. cereus strain disclosed a notable genetic identity with other strains from the USA and China. Moreover, the obtained B. cereus strains revealed ß-hemolytic activity, and 88.1% of the recovered strains tested positive for biofilm production. PCR evidenced that the obtained B. cereus strains usually inherited the nhe complex genes (nheA and nheC: 100%, and nheB: 83.3%), followed by cytK (76.2%), hbl complex (hblC and hblD: 59.5%, hblB: 16.6%, and hblA: 11.9%), ces (54.7%), and pc-plc (30.9%) virulence genes. Likewise, 42.9% of the examined B. cereus strains were MDR to six antimicrobial classes and encoded bla1, bla2, ermA, and tetA genes. CONCLUSION: In summary, this study highlights the presence of MDR B. cereus in meat and meat products, posing a significant public health risk. The contamination by B. cereus is common in minced meat and beef meat. The molecular assay is a reliable fundamental tool for screening emerging MDR B. cereus strains in meat and meat products.

Partnering essential oils with antibiotics: proven therapies against bovine Staphylococcus aureus mastitis.

Introduction: There is an urgent need to develop therapeutic options for biofilm-producing Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Therefore, the renewed interest in essential oils (EOs), especially carvacrol, linalool and eugenol, has attracted the attention of our research group. Methods: Multidrug resistance and multivirulence profiles in addition to biofilm production of S. aureus strains isolated from cows with mastitis were evaluated using both phenotypic and genotypic methods. The antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities of EOs were tested using both in vitro and molecular docking studies. Moreover, the interactions between commonly used antibiotics and the tested EOs were detected using the checkerboard method. Results: We found that all our isolates (n= 37) were biofilm methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) producers and 40.5% were vancomycin resistant S. aureus (VRSA). Unfortunately, 73 and 43.2% of the recovered MRSA isolates showed multidrug resistant (MDR) and multivirulence patterns, respectively. The antimicrobial activities of the tested EOs matched with the phenotypic evaluation of the antibiofilm activities and molecular docking studies. Linalool showed the highest antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities, followed by carvacrol and eugenol EOs. Fortunately, synergistic interactions between the investigated EOs and methicillin or vancomycin were detected with fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) values ≤ 0.5. Moreover, the antimicrobial resistance patterns of 13 isolates changed to sensitive phenotypes after treatment with any of the investigated EOs. Treatment failure of bovine mastitis with resistant S. aureus can be avoided by combining the investigated EOs with available antimicrobial drugs. Conclusion: We hope that our findings can be translated into a formulation of new pharmaceutical dosage forms against biofilm-producing S. aureus pathogens.

Resistance profiles, virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes of XDR S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium.

Avian salmonellosis is concomitant with high financial crises in the poultry industry as well as food-borne illness in man. The present study is designed to investigate the emergence of Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium in diseased broilers, resistance profiles, and monitoring virulence and antibiotic resistance genes. Consequently, 450 samples (cloacal swabs, liver, and spleen) were collected from 150 diseased birds from different farms in Giza Governorate, Egypt. Subsequently, the bacteriological examination was done. Afterward, the obtained Salmonella isolates were tested for serogrouping, antibiogram, PCR monitoring of virulence (invA, stn, hilA, and pefA), and antimicrobial resistance genes (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaNDM, ermA, sul1, tetA, and aadA1). The total prevalence of Salmonella in the examined diseased broilers was 9.3%, and the highest prevalence was noticed in cloacal swabs. Among the recovered Salmonella isolates (n = 35), 20 serovars were recognized as S. Enteritidis and 15 serovars were identified as S. Typhimurium. Almost 60% of the retrieved S. Enteritidis serovars were extensively drug-resistant (XDR) to seven antimicrobial classes and inherited sul1, blaTEM, tetA, blaCTX-M, ereA, and aadA1 genes. Likewise, 25% of the recovered S. Enteritidis serovars were multidrug-resistant (MDR) to six classes and have sul1, blaTEM, tetA, blaCTX-M, and ereA resistance genes. Also, 66.7% of the retrieved S. Typhimurium serovars were XDR to seven classes and have sul1, blaTEM, tetA, blaCTX-M, ereA, and aadA1 genes. Succinctly, this report underlined the reemergence of XDR S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis in broiler chickens. Meropenem and norfloxacin exposed a hopeful antimicrobial activity toward the re-emerging XDR S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis in broilers. Moreover, the recurrence of these XDR Salmonella strains poses a potential public health threat.

Prospective Application of Nanoencapsulated Bacillus amyloliquefaciens on Broiler Chickens' Performance and Gut Health with Efficacy against Campylobacter jejuni Colonization.

Probiotics as novel antibiotics' substitutes are verified to provide barriers for hindering the colonization of enteric bacterial pathogens with nutritional benefits. For enhancement of the probiotics' effectiveness, their integration within nanomaterials is a paramount tool to support the progress of new compounds with functional features. Therefore, we addressed the impact of effective delivery of probiotics (Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) loaded nanoparticles (BNPs) on performance and Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) shedding and colonization in poultry. Two hundred Ross broiler chickens were divided into four groups fed various BNP levels: BNPs I, BNPs II, BNPs III, and BNPs-free diets for 35 days. Nanoparticles delivery of probiotics within broiler diets improved growth performance as reflected by higher body weight gain and superior feed conversion ratio, especially in BNPs II- and BNPs III-fed groups. In parallel, the mRNA expression levels of digestive enzymes encoding genes (AMY2a, PNLIP, CELA1, and CCK) achieved their peaks in BNPs III-fed group (1.69, 1.49, 1.33, and 1.29-fold change, respectively) versus the control one. Notably, with increasing the levels of BNPs, the abundance of beneficial microbiota, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species, was favored over harmful ones, including Clostridium species and Enterobacteriaceae. Birds fed higher levels of BNPs displayed significant improvement in the expression of barrier functions-linked genes including DEFB1, FABP-2, and MUC-2 alongside substantial reduction in cecal colonization and fecal shedding of C. jejuni. From the aforementioned positive effects of BNPs, we concluded their potential roles as growth promoters and effective preventive aids for C. jejuni infection in poultry.

oprL Gene Sequencing, Resistance Patterns, Virulence Genes, Quorum Sensing and Antibiotic Resistance Genes of XDR Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolated from Broiler Chickens.

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is incriminated in septicemia, significant economic losses in the poultry production sector, and severe respiratory infections in humans. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, oprL sequencing, antimicrobial resistance patterns, virulence-determinant, Quorum sensing, and antibiotic resistance genes of P. aeruginosa retrieved from broiler chickens. Methods: Two hundred samples were collected from 120 broiler chickens from broiler farms at Ismailia Governorate, Egypt. Consequently, the bacteriological examination was conducted and the obtained P. aeruginosa strains were tested for oprL gene sequencing, antibiogram, and PCR screening of virulence, Quorum sensing, and antibiotic resistance genes. Results: The overall prevalence of P. aeruginosa in the examined birds was 28.3%. The oprL gene sequence analysis underlined that the tested strain expressed a notable genetic identity with various P. aeruginosa strains isolated from different geographical areas in the USA, India, China, Chile, and Ghana. PCR evidenced that the obtained P. aeruginosa strains, carrying virulence-related genes: oprL, toxA, aprA, phzM, and exoS in a prevalence of 100%, 100%, 42.5%, 33.3%, and 25.9%, respectively. Moreover, the recovered P. aeruginosa strains possessed the Quorum sensing genes: lasI, lasR, rhlI, and rhlR in a prevalence of 85.2%, 85.2%, 81.5%, and 81.5%, respectively. Furthermore, 40.7% of the isolated P. aeruginosa were XDR to seven antimicrobial classes, possessing sul1, bla TEM, tetA, bla CTX-M, bla OXA-1, and aadA1 genes. Conclusion: As we can tell, this is the first report emphasizing the evolution of XDR P. aeruginosa strains from broiler chicken in Egypt, which is supposed to be a serious threat to public health. The emerging XDR P. aeruginosa in poultry frequently harbored the oprL, toxA, and aprA virulence genes, the lasI, lasR, rhlI, and rhlR Quorum sensing genes, and the sul1, bla TEM, tetA, bla CTXM, bla OXA-1, and aadA1 resistance genes.

A First Report of Molecular Typing, Virulence Traits, and Phenotypic and Genotypic Resistance Patterns of Newly Emerging XDR and MDR Aeromonas veronii in Mugil seheli.

Aeromonas veronii is associated with substantial economic losses in the fish industry and with food-borne illness in humans. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, antibiogram profiles, sequence analysis, virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes, and pathogenicity of A. veronii recovered from Mugil seheli. A total of 80 fish were randomly gathered from various private farms in Suez Province, Egypt. Subsequently, samples were subjected to clinical, post-mortem, and bacteriological examinations. The retrieved isolates were tested for sequence analysis, antibiogram profile, pathogenicity, and PCR detection of virulence and resistance genes. The prevalence of A. veronii in the examined M. seheli was 22.5 % (18/80). The phylogenetic analyses revealed that the tested A. veronii strains shared high genetic similarity with other A. veronii strains from India, UK, and China. Using PCR it was revealed that the retrieved A. veronii isolates harbored the aerA, alt, ser, ompAII, act, ahp, and nuc virulence genes with prevalence of 100%, 82.9%, 61.7%, 55.3%, 44.7%, 36.17%, and 29.8%, respectively. Our findings revealed that 29.8% (14/47) of the retrieved A. veronii strains were XDR to nine antimicrobial classes and carried blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaSHV,tetA, aadA1, and sul1 resistance genes. Likewise, 19.1% (9/47) of the obtained A. veronii strains were MDR to eight classes and possessed blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaSHV,tetA, aadA1, and sul1 genes. The pathogenicity testing indicated that the mortality rates positively correlated with the prevalence of virulence-determinant genes. To our knowledge, this is the first report to reveal the occurrence of XDR and MDR A. veronii in M. seheli, an emergence that represents a risk to public health. Emerging XDR and MDR A. veronii in M. seheli frequently harbored aerA, alt, ser, ompAII, and act virulence genes, and blaTEM, sul1, tetA, blaCTX-M, blaSHV, and aadA1 resistance genes.

Prevalence, antibiotic profile, virulence determinants, ESBLs, and non-ß-lactam encoding genes of MDR Proteus spp. isolated from infected dogs.

This study investigated the prevalence, antibiogram, virulence, extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBLs), and non-ß-lactam encoding genes of Proteus species isolated from infected dogs in Ismailia province, Egypt. The study was conducted on 70 fecal swabs collected from dogs with diarrhea for bacteriological identification of Proteus spp. The positive isolates were evaluated for antibiotic susceptibility, molecular tests of virulence, ESBLs, and non-ß-lactam encoding genes. Prevalence of Proteus spp. was 35.7% (25/70), including Proteus mirabilis (n = 23) and Proteus vulgaris (n = 2). The Proteus spp. prevalence revealed diversity, higher in males than females, in ages < 12 weeks. Investigation of antimicrobial resistance was found against penicillin and amoxicillin (100%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (32%), cephalosporins: cefotaxime and ceftazidime (36%), and monobactam: aztreonam (28%) as ESBLs, in addition to tetracycline (32%) and trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole (100%). The strains retrieved by PCR revealed ureC, zapA, and rsbA virulence genes with variant prevalence as 92%, 60%, and 52%, respectively. In addition, the recovered strains contained ESBL genes with a dramatic variable prevalence of 100%, 92%, 36%, and 32%, to bla TEM, bla SHV, bla CTX-M, and bla OXA-1, respectively, and non ß-lactam encoding genes with a prevalence of 100%, 48%, 44%, 20%, and 12%, to sul1, tetA, intI1, qnrA, and aadA1. Moreover, 28% (7/25) of recovering strains were MDR (multidrug-resistant) up to four classes of antimicrobials, and 48% (12/25) of the examined strains were MDR up to three antimicrobial classes. In conclusion, to the best of our knowledge, our study could be the first report recording MDR Proteus spp. in dogs in Egypt.

Newly Emerging MDR B. cereus in Mugil seheli as the First Report Commonly Harbor nhe, hbl, cytK, and pc-plc Virulence Genes and bla1, bla2, tetA, and ermA Resistance Genes.

Background: Bacillus cereus is a common food poisoning pathogen in humans. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, molecular typing, antibiogram profile, pathogenicity, dissemination of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes associated with natural B. cereus infection among Mugil seheli. Methods: Consequently, 120 M. seheli (40 healthy and 80 diseased) were obtained from private fish farms in Port-said Governorate, Egypt. Afterward, samples were processed for clinical, post-mortem, and bacteriological examinations. The recovered isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, phenotypic assessment of virulence factors, pathogeneicity, and PCR-based detection of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes. Results: B. cereus was isolated from 30 (25%) examined fish; the highest prevalence was noticed in the liver (50%). The phylogenetic and sequence analyses of the gyrB gene revealed that the tested B. cereus isolate displayed a high genetic similarity with other B. cereus strains from different origins. All the recovered B. cereus isolates (n =60, 100%) exhibited ß-hemolytic and lecithinase activities, while 90% (54/60) of the tested isolates were biofilm producers. Using PCR, the tested B. cereus isolates harbor nhe, hbl, cytK, pc-plc, and ces virulence genes with prevalence rates of 91.6%, 86.6%, 83.4%, 50%, and 33.4%, respectively. Moreover, 40% (24/60) of the tested B. cereus isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR) to six antimicrobial classes and carried the bla1, bla2, tetA, and ermA genes. The experimentally infected fish with B. cereus showed variable mortality in direct proportion to the inoculated doses. Conclusion: As far as we know, this is the first report that emphasized the existence of MDR B. cereus in M. seheli that reflects a threat to the public health and the aquaculture sector. Newly emerging MDR B. cereus in M. seheli commonly carried virulence genes nhe, hbl, cytK, and pc-plc, as well as resistance genes bla1, bla2, tetA, and ermA.

Clostridium perfringens Associated with Foodborne Infections of Animal Origins: Insights into Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance, Toxin Genes Profiles, and Toxinotypes.

Several food-poisoning outbreaks have been attributed to Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) worldwide. Despite that, this crisis was discussed in a few studies, and additional studies are urgently needed in this field. Therefore, we sought to highlight the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, toxin profiles, and toxinotypes of C. perfringens isolates. In this study, 50 C. perfringens isolates obtained from 450 different animal origin samples (beef, chicken meat, and raw milk) were identified by phenotypic and genotypic methods. The antimicrobial susceptibility results were surprising, as most of the isolates (74%) showed multidrug-resistant (MDR) patterns. The phenotypic resistance to tetracycline, lincomycin, enrofloxacin, cefoxitin/ampicillin, and erythromycin was confirmed by the PCR detections of tet, lnu, qnr, bla, and erm(B) genes, respectively. In contrast to the toxinotypes C and E, toxinotype A prevailed (54%) among our isolates. Additionally, we found that the genes for C. perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) and C. perfringens beta2 toxin (cpb2) were distributed among the tested isolates with high prevalence rates (70 and 64%, respectively). Our findings confirmed that the C. perfringens foodborne crisis has been worsened by the evolution of MDR strains, which became the prominent phenotypes. Furthermore, we were not able to obtain a fixed association between the toxinotypes and antimicrobial resistance patterns.

Virulence determinant and antimicrobial resistance traits of Emerging MDR Shiga toxigenic E. coli in diarrheic dogs.

Shiga-toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) is incriminated in severe hemorrhagic enteritis in dogs, which is considered a veterinary and public health alarm. To investigate the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance patterns, virulence determinants, and distribution of antimicrobial resistance genes in STEC strains isolated from dogs: 80 fecal samples were obtained from diseased dogs suffering from hemorrhagic diarrhea from pet animal clinics in Ismailia governorate, Egypt. The obtained samples were examined bacteriologically. Moreover, the retrieved isolates were tested for serogrouping, Congo-red binding, antimicrobial resistance, and PCR-based determination of virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes. The prevalence of E. coli in the examined diseased dogs was 23.75% (19/80). The serogrouping of the recovered isolates revealed that 84.2% of the tested isolates were distributed into three serogroups: O146 (36.8%), O111 (31.5%), and O26 (15.7%). Meanwhile, three isolates were untypable (15.8%). Moreover, all the tested E. coli serovars were positive for CR-binding. PCR revealed that the prevalence of stx1, eaeA, hlyA, and stx2 virulence genes was 100%, 100%, 100%, and 47.3%, respectively. Our findings revealed that 31.5% of the recovered isolates showed MDR to five antimicrobial classes and harbored blaTEM, blaCTX-M, tetA, tetB, and sul1 genes. Alarmingly, three isolates were carbapenem-resistant. Two strains harbored the blaKPC gene, while one strain carried the blaNDM-1 gene. Concisely, as far as we know, this is the first study that reported the existence of MDR-STEC in dogs in Egypt. The stx1 gene is the most predominant Shiga toxin gene that accompanied the STEC isolated from hemorrhagic enteritis in dogs. The emerging MDR-STEC in dogs commonly harbors blaTEM, blaCTX-M, sul1, tetA, tetB, and qnrA resistance genes. Meropenem, levofloxacin, and tigecycline exhibited talented antimicrobial activity against MDR-STEC isolated from dogs.

Emerging MDR-Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium in house-reared domestic birds as the first report in Egypt.

BACKGROUND: Avian tuberculosis is a chronic and zoonotic disease that affects a wide variety of birds, mammals, and humans. This study aimed to estimate the frequency of Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium in some domestic birds based on molecular diagnosis, antibiogram profile, and PCR-based detection of inhA, rpoB, rpsL, and otrB antibiotic resistance-related genes. METHODS: A total of 120 fecal samples were collected from small flocks of house-reared domestic birds at Ismailia Governorate, Egypt. The collected samples were processed and subjected to the bacteriological examination. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing of the recovered isolates was performed using the broth microdilution method for the detection of minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs). The genetic detection of the IS901confirmatory gene, inhA, rpoB, rpsL, and otrB genes was carried out using PCR. RESULTS: The frequency of M. avium subsp. avium was 4.1% (5/120); 10% (4/40) in ducks, and 2.5% (1/10) in geese. The identification of the recovered isolates was confirmed using PCR, where all the tested isolates were positive for IS901confirmatory gene. The results of the broth microdilution method revealed that most of the recovered isolates exhibited multidrug resistance (MDR) to isoniazid, rifampicin, streptomycin, oxytetracycline, and doxycycline, and harbored the inhA, rpoB, rpsL, and otrB genes. CONCLUSION: In brief, to the best of our knowledge this is the first report that emphasized the emergence of avian tuberculosis in house-reared domestic birds in Egypt. The emergence of MDR- M. avium subsp. avium is considered a public health threat. Emerging MDR-M. avium subsp. avium in domestic birds are commonly harbored the IS901, inhA, rpoB, rpsL, and otrB genes. Azithromycin and clofazimine revealed a promising in-vitro antibacterial activity against M. avium subsp. avium.

atpD gene sequencing, multidrug resistance traits, virulence-determinants, and antimicrobial resistance genes of emerging XDR and MDR-Proteus mirabilis.

Proteus mirabilis is a common opportunistic pathogen causing severe illness in humans and animals. To determine the prevalence, antibiogram, biofilm-formation, screening of virulence, and antimicrobial resistance genes in P. mirabilis isolates from ducks; 240 samples were obtained from apparently healthy and diseased ducks from private farms in Port-Said Province, Egypt. The collected samples were examined bacteriologically, and then the recovered isolates were tested for atpD gene sequencing, antimicrobial susceptibility, biofilm-formation, PCR detection of virulence, and antimicrobial resistance genes. The prevalence of P. mirabilis in the examined samples was 14.6% (35/240). The identification of the recovered isolates was confirmed by the atpD gene sequencing, where the tested isolates shared a common ancestor. Besides, 94.3% of P. mirabilis isolates were biofilm producers. The recovered isolates were resistant to penicillins, sulfonamides, ß-Lactam-ß-lactamase-inhibitor-combinations, tetracyclines, cephalosporins, macrolides, and quinolones. Using PCR, the retrieved strains harbored atpD, ureC, rsbA, and zapA virulence genes with a prevalence of 100%, 100%, 94.3%, and 91.4%, respectively. Moreover, 31.4% (11/35) of the recovered strains were XDR to 8 antimicrobial classes that harbored blaTEM, blaOXA-1, blaCTX-M, tetA, and sul1 genes. Besides, 22.8% (8/35) of the tested strains were MDR to 3 antimicrobial classes and possessed blaTEM, tetA, and sul1genes. Furthermore, 17.1% (6/35) of the tested strains were MDR to 7 antimicrobial classes and harbored blaTEM, blaOXA-1, blaCTX-M, tetA, and sul1 genes. Alarmingly, three strains were carbapenem-resistant that exhibited PDR to all the tested 10 antimicrobial classes and shared blaTEM, blaOXA-1, blaCTX-M, tetA, and sul1 genes. Of them, two strains harbored the blaNDM-1 gene, and one strain carried the blaKPC gene. In brief, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the emergence of XDR and MDR-P.mirabilis in ducks. Norfloxacin exhibited promising antibacterial activity against the recovered XDR and MDR-P. mirabilis. The emergence of PDR, XDR, and MDR-strains constitutes a threat alarm that indicates the complicated treatment of the infections caused by these superbugs.

Virulence-determinants and antibiotic-resistance genes of MDR-E. coli isolated from secondary infections following FMD-outbreak in cattle.

This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence, multidrug-resistance traits, PCR-detection of virulence, and antibiotic-resistance genes of E. coli isolated from secondary infections following FMD-outbreak in cattle. A total of 160 random samples were gathered from private dairy farms in Damietta Province, Egypt. The specimens were subjected to bacteriological examination, serotyping, congo-red binding assay, antibiogram-testing, and PCR-monitoring of virulence-determinant genes (tsh, phoA, hly, eaeA, sta, and lt) as well as the antibiotic-resistance genes (blaTEM, blaKPC, and blaCTX). The prevalence of E. coli was 30% (n = 48) distributed in 8 serogroups (40/48, 83.3%), while 8 isolates (8/48, 16.6%) were untypable. Besides, 83.3% of the examined isolates were positive for CR-binding. The tested strains harbored the virulence genes phoA, hly, tsh, eaeA, sta, and lt with a prevalence of 100% and 50%, 45.8%, 25%, 8.4%, and 6.2%, respectively. Furthermore, 50% of the recovered strains were multidrug-resistant (MDR) to penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems, and are harboring the blaTEM, blaCTX, and blaKPC genes. Moreover, 25% of the examined strains are resistant to penicillins, and cephalosporins, and are harboring the blaTEM and blaCTX genes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report concerning the E. coli secondary bacterial infections following the FMD-outbreak. The emergence of MDR strains is considered a public health threat and indicates complicated treatment and bad prognosis of infections caused by such strains. Colistin sulfate and levofloxacin have a promising in vitro activity against MDR-E. coli.

Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles, Virulence and Enterotoxins-Determinant Genes of MRSA Isolated from Subclinical Bovine Mastitis in Egypt.

Subclinical mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus has worldwide public health significance. Here, we aimed to determine the prevalence of S. aureus, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and the virulence and enterotoxins determinant genes of MRSA strains that caused subclinical bovine mastitis. Milk samples were collected from 120 lactating animals (50 buffaloes and 70 dairy cattle) from different farms located in Ismailia Province (Egypt). The collected samples were investigated for subclinical mastitis using a California mastitis test. The total prevalence of S. aureus was 35.9% (84/234) with 36.3% (53/146) in cattle and 31% (31/88) in buffaloes. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that 35.7% (30/84) of the isolated strains were resistant to cefoxitin, defined as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), with 37.7% (20/53) in cattle and 32.2% (10/31) in buffaloes. Using PCR, 100% of the tested strains harbored coa and mecA genes, while 86.6% were positive for spa gene, with remarkable gene size polymorphism. Additionally, 10% of the tested strains contained the pvl gene. Further, using multiplex PCR, 26.6% of the tested samples had sea gene, two strains had sec gene and only one strain had sea and sec genes. The seb and sed genes were absent in the tested strains. In conclusion, mecA, coa and spa virulence genes were widely distributed in MRSA strains isolated from bovine milk, whereas the sea gene was the most predominant enterotoxin gene. Notably, this is the first report that emphasizes the prevalence of pvl gene of MRSA isolated from bovine milk in Egypt.